without circumcision and without such ‘works of the law’, how could Jews continue to assert that membership of Israel was bound up with and inseparable from just such works of the Torah? Thus did Paul strain the diversity of Second Temple Judaism to breaking point. 4. Yet Paul did make this claim (that Gentiles could participate in Israel without becoming proselytes). But he did not do so in a reckless or thoughtless manner, far less in a deliberately destructive or apostate manner. On the contrary,
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